Post Mauryan period:
· After the Mauryas, the north west part of mauryas were replaced by Indo-Greeks and in central India by shungas.
· Indo-Greeks were followed by sakas and sakas were followed by Parthians and then by Kushanas.
· Shungas were replaced by kankas, then followed by satavahanas.
Indo- Greeks (Bactrians)
· First to cross Hindukush.
· Pushed towards India by the advancing Scythians tribes.
· Ruled large part of north-western India.
· Famous Indo-Greek King was Menander (165-145 B.C)
· He had his capital at Sakala (Punjab).
Socio -economics:
· First to issue gold coins in India and can be definitely attributed to a king.
· King Menander, earlier Known as Milinda, was converted to Buddhism.
· The questions of Milinda to Nagasena, a Buddhist monk, were recorded in the form of a book known as Milinda Panho.
Art & culture:
· Introduced Hellenistic art features in the region, giving rise to Gandhara art of Buddhism.
· Gandhara school of art:
· Greek-roman art with Indigenous elements
· Grey sandstone is used.
Sakas – polity:
· There were five branches of the Sakas with their capitals in different regions.
1.Afghanistan.
2. Punjab- Taxila
3.Mathura
4.Western Ind
5. Upper Deccan
· Out of all the branches, the branch that ruled western India was powerful and existed for four centuries.
· In 58 B.C, King of Ujjain defeated Sakas and he took the title ‘Vikramaditya’.
· An era started with 58 B.C by Vikramaditya.
· The most famous saka ruler was Rudradaman I (130-150A.D)
· They emphasized on proper irrigation to the region, which was manifested through the repair of Sudarshan lake, by Rudradaman
· First ever long inscription was issued in Sanskrit- JUNAGADH Inscription
· Earlier inscriptions were issued in Prakrit.
Parthians:
· They moved from Parthia, Iran, to India.
· Occupied small territory in north-western India when compared to the Indo-Greeks and Sakas.
· Gondophares, most famous Parthian King.
· In the reign of Gondophares St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.
Kushans polity:
· They are the nomadic tribes of north-central Asia.
· Their empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganga, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.
· Two Important King in Kushans:
1. Kadphises
2. Kanishka
· Kadphises issued Gold coins in India.
· Kushans extended their power over upper India and the lower Indus.
· Their capitals- Peshawar and Mathura.
· Kanishka is the most popular Kushan King.
· He started an era called the Saka era, 78 A.D.
Administration:
· Strengthened the idea of the divine origin of Kingship.
· Introduced the Satrap system.
· Military governorship.
Society:
· They got assimilated into Indian tradition.
· The Kushan rulers worshipped both Shiva and the Buddha.
· Several Kushan rulers worshipped Vishnu.
· Kanishka, convened fourth Buddhist council, became a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism.
Mathura school of art:
· It is an indigenous art developed in Mathura, Sarnath and Kausambi.
· Material used was spotted red stone.
· It covers Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism.
· Jina's image and Buddha’s image are masterpieces of the art.
· It also had a secular element.
Technology:
· Use of burnt bricks for flooring and tiles for both roofing and flooring.
· Construction of brick-wells.
· Red ware-plain and polished.
· Sprinklers and spouted channels.
· Introduced turban, tunic,Long coat
· Introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse.
· Made common the use of reins and saddles.
· Introduced cap, helmet and boots.
The age of Guptas:
· After the decline of Mauryas, it was the Gupta dynasty in Magadha which was able to carve a large empire.
· Although the empire was smaller as compared to the Mauryan Empire, yet it consisted of a greater part of Northern India.
Important Aspects of Gupta Period:
Sources
• Inscriptions:
1. Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta
2. Udayagiri cave inscription and Sanchi inscriptions of Chandragupta-II
3. Mehrauli Iron pillar inscription of Chandragupta-II
4. Bilsad, Mandsor, Damodarpur copper plate inscription of Kumaragupta.
5. Junagadh and Bhitari pillar inscriptions of Skandagupta.
· Literary sources:
1. Nitisara of Kamandaka
2. Devichandraguptam of Visakhadutta
3. Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka
Polity:
· Guptans original home lay in the eastern U.P.
· They were subordinates of Kushans, Of course this is contested.
· Srigupta was the first king followed by Ghattotkacha.
Chandragupta-I:
· He founded a new era from 319-320 A.D, known as Gupta Samvat.
· During his regime, the kingdom covered parts of Bihar, U.P and Bengal.
· First independent king with the title Maharajadhiraja.
· Enlarged his Magadhan kingdom with the help of matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis.
· Images of the king and his queen Kumaradevi were engraved on one side of the coins, made up of Gold.
Samudra gupta:
· Son of Chandragupta-I acceded to the throne.
· He adopted an aggressive policy of conquests, which culminated in the formation of the Gupta empire.
· He adopted a five-pronged approach towards different regions:
1. Aryavarta: The northern region consisting of Punjab, western U.P and northern M.P. He conquered these regions by defeating various rulers, like Nagasena of Nagas in Gwalior, and annexing territories.
2. South: 12 rulers of South were defeated by Samudragupta, In the south, he followed a policy of grahana-moksha(capture-release).
3. Frontier Kingdoms: Kamarupa (Assam), Samatata (SE Bengal) and republics like Yaudheyas (Haryana), Malvas (Rajasthan) paid him tributes and paid homage.
4. States in forest regions were reduced to servants by him.
5. Some states self-surrendered to him by giving their daughters – later Kushanas, rulers of Srilanka.
Chandragupta-II(Vikramaditya)
· Son of Samudragupta and defeated Sakas, who captured Dhruvadevi, wife of his brother. He later married her by killing his brother Ramagupta.
· He ruled from Ujjain.
· He brought an end to Saka Kshatrapa rule and added the regions of Gujarat, Kathiawar and west Malwa to the empire. Udayagiri cave inscription and Sanchi inscription give the details of it.
· He had a matrimonial alliance with Vakatakas of Vidarbha and Nagas of Gwalior.
· Mehrauli iron pillar inscription, in the complex of Qutub-minar, is identified with Chandragupta-II. This inscription says, he crossed sapta sindhu and defeated valikas of Bactria.
· Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien visited during his period.
Kumaragupta-I:
· Son of Chandragupta-II and Fyzabad (Karamdanda)inscription, engraved by his minister, mentions his fame having spread to the four oceans.
· Bilsad inscription is the earliest inscription of his period.
· Mandsor inscription (436 A.D) mentions Kumaragupta as reigning over the whole earth.
· Damodarpur copper plate inscriptions refer to him as “Maharajadhiraja” and show that he was appointed governor of a province.
· He continued cordial relations with Vakatakas.
· He founded Nalanda university.
Skandagupta:
· Son of Kumaragupta-I, perhaps the last powerful Guptan king.
· Empire faced hurdles from Huns and Pushyamitra. However, he was successful in throwing Huns back.
· Junagadh inscription mentions the public works done, especially the repair of Sudarshan lake, by Skandagupta.
· Bhitari pillar inscription dates to his reign gives the chronology of Guptas and his conflict with Pushyamitra and Huns.
Administration:
· King remained as the central figure of administration.
· Empire is divided into Bhukti (Uparika as head), Vishayas (Vishayapati as head) and villages (Gramapati).
· Guptan monarchs adopted titles like parama bhattaraka, chakravarthi etc., to be considered king as divinity on earth.
· However, in spite of supreme powers he was expected to follow a righteous path and had certain duties.
· King used to take advice from the council of ministers and issue written instructions to officials on all important matters.
· The Minister's office was hereditary-Udayagiri cave inscription of Chandragupta-II mentions this.
· King was assisted by Mahanandanayaka (chief justice) in justice delivery. Similarly, at bhukti and vishayas level the work was entrusted to the Uparikas and vishayapatis.
· Other high officials of this period were – Mahapratisara, was the chief of the palace guards; Dutakas, associated with implementing gifts when gifts of land were made to brahmanas.
Army and revenue administration:
· An important minister in charge of peace and war called sandhi-Vigrahika.
· Officials like Pilupati (head of elephants), Asvapati (Head of horses), Narapti (head of foot soldiers) worked in the Guptan army.
· Officer-in charge of stores called Ranabhandagrika.
· Land revenue and fines formed an important source of state’s income.
· An official Akshapataladhikrita who entered matters in registers, recovered royal dues and fines.
· One-sixth of the produce should be claimed as the royal revenue.
· In addition, there was Uparichara, levied on inter-city trade in cloth, oil etc. Sulka, a commercial tax also levied.
Economy:
· Agriculture, production of crafts and commerce were important activities.
· Lands were categorized as Kshetra (cultivated land), Khila and Aprahata (Uncultivated lands).
· Measurement of land was done- terms like Nivartana, Kulyavapa and Dronavapa were used for measurement.
· Crops grown – Barley, wheat and paddy, pulses, vegetables and cash crops like cotton and sugarcane.
· State provided for irrigation facilities and there was a mechanism known as ghati-yantra, also called as araghatta, to provide water to fields.
· Land became a commodity of exchange- It is being sold and given as a gift.
Craft production and trade:
· Crafts produced consisted of domestic use items and luxury items.
· Some items were manufactured and others traded.
· Some representatives of merchants involved in administration of the district headquarters- Nagar Sethi and the sathavahana (caravan trader).
· Organisations like Shreni existed, which regulated the conduct of its members.
· These different craft producers formed Jatis (caste).
· By the end of Gupta period there was a decline of trade and cities, a prerequisite for a process called ‘urban decay’.
Society:
· Varna based social order, as an ideal society was recognised by the Guptan state.
· Increased land grants to Brahmanas and rise of brahmana settlements called brahmadiyas, Agraharas.
· Jatis that emerged were given fictitious origins like varna-sankara.
· In times of distress, the Dharmashastras say, varna social order can be deviated.
· There were groups like chandellas, who were kept out of the four-fold varna system.
· Women from higher varna were given lower positions. In some cases, they were treated as Shudras.
Religion:
· Buddhism no longer received royal patronage in the Gupta period.
· The two popular gods of this period-Vishnu and shiva.
· Vishnu Purana consists of numerous legends of Vishnu; a law book called the vishnu smriti was named after this god.
· A famous Vaishnava work Bhagavad-Gita, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna and stressed the performance of the functions assigned to each varna appeared during this period.
· Idol worship in the temples became common.
· Agricultural festivals were given religious grab and color.
· Guptas were tolerant towards different religious sects.
Art and architecture:
· Samudragupta and Chandragupta-II were patrons of art and literature.
· Samudragupta was represented on the coins as playing veena.
· Most Guptan art is religious in nature.
· Two-meter-high bronze image of the Buddha, which was recovered from sultanganj in Bhagalpur.
· 25-meter copper image of Buddha, as mentioned by Fa-hien, but it is not traceable now.
· Beautiful images of Buddha were made at Sarnath and Mathura.
· Most of the paintings in Ajanta, depicting various events in the life of Buddha, were from the Guptan period.
· For the first time, images of Vishnu, shiva and other Hindu gods were found.
· Few temples made of brick in Uttar Pradesh- Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur; and a stone temple were found.
· A Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up .
Literature:
· Nitisara of Kamandaka, disciple of Kautilya, dealt with statecraft of the post Mauryan politics. The book gives the details of Chandragupta-I
· In the court of Chandragupta-II, there were nine poets called ‘Navaratna’. This was mentioned in Jyotirvid Abharana, a treatise attributed to Kalidasa.
· The court language of the Guptas was Sanskrit. Ornate style of Sanskrit is used in the writings, a deviation from the traditional Sanskrit writing.
· Some scholars were: Amarsimha, Sanskrit grammarian and poet who wrote Amarkhosha. Dhanvantri wrote Ayurveda, Varahamira wrote Brihat Samhita, deals with architecture, temples, planets etc.
· Devichandraguptam of Visakhadutta, deals with King Ramagupta and his wife Dhruva devi, who were abducted by the Sakas. Then Chandragupta-II attacked Sakas and got her and married her after killing his brother king Ramagupta.
· Mrichchakatika of Sudraka, it is dated to early 5th century A.D. It deals with the love relationship between a young man, charudatta and vasantasena, a rich courtesan in the Gupta period. It is an entertainment play.
Works of kalidasa:
Most popular writer of this period was Kalidasa. His surviving works are three plays, two epics and two shorter poems. They are:
1. Malavikagnimitra: It is a love affair between King Agnimitra of shunga dynasty and a servant girl Malavika.
2. Abhijnana Shakuntalam: It is a story between King Dushyant who on a hunting trip meets Shakuntala, adopted daughter of a sage, and marries her.
3. Vikramorvasiyam: It is a story between a mortal king pururavas and celestial nymph Urvasi. .
Characters of higher and lower classes do not speak the same language; women and shudras featuring these plays use Prakrit.
Epics and scientific works:
· This period saw the compilation of two epics Ramayana and Mahabharat.
· The period also witnessed scientific works: Aryabhata wrote Aryabhattiyam, which introduced the decimal system; Varahamira’s Romaka siddhanta.
· Brahmagupta: Precede Newton in theory of gravitation. His Works: Brahmaspotaka siddhanta and Kandakadyaka .
Causes for the failure of Gupta empire:
· Hun invasion which made the north-west vulnerable.
· System of land grants and feudatories who declared independence.
· Financial crisis .
Credits: Leo Rajalakshmi
